The development of geothermal energy—heat from the Earth’s interior—is part of Indonesia’s renewable energy transition policy. However, it is causing significant negative impact on Indigenous communities such as those on Indonesia’s eastern islands of Flores and Lembata.
Indonesia’s national government aims to increase the share of renewable energy in the national energy mix, including geothermal energy, to 25 per cent by 2030. The government has designated the island of Flores in East Nusa Tenggara as a strategic area for geothermal power development. There are 17 potential geothermal power plant sites across Flores.
Two geothermal power plants, Ulumbu (Manggarai) and Sokoria (Ende), are already operational. The government plans to build new plants in Wae Sano (Manggarai) and Pajoreja (Nagekeo). Drilling is underway for a new plant in Mataloko (Ngada), situated near the Daratei power plant, which was constructed in the 2000s but is no longer functional, resulting in significant environmental and residential damage. Additionally, geothermal companies contracted by the State Electricity Firm (PLN: Perusahan Listrik Negara) are exploring in Poco Leok (Manggarai), Pajoreja (Nagekeo), and Atadei (Lembata).
Geothermal energy development on Flores aims to meet rising electricity demand, reduce diesel power costs; and supply energy for tourism, fisheries, agricultural processing, and other downstream industries. Other goals include creating jobs and generating revenue for local governments.
Our research
Our research involved conducting in-depth interviews and discussions, analysing government policy documents, reading mainstream media analysis, and performing on-site observations. Through media reports, we gathered insights particularly into local debates about geothermal energy plants and why local communities oppose geothermal projects. In addition, through interviews, discussions, and on-site observations, we gained a clearer understanding of how geothermal projects impact the lives of local Indigenous communities.
In particular, a visit to Flores from 22 May to 1 June 2025 allowed us to gather information through in-person interviews with activists, community leaders, local parliamentarians, and others. We also held a discussion session on 24 May 2025 with 20 community members in Poco Leok, Manggarai; and observed some geothermal project sites in Poco Leok and Mataloko from 28-29 May 2025. Our participation in the National Anti-Mining Day in Mataloko from 26-29 May 2025 also provided insights for this article.
As Indigenous researchers and community members, we view natural sites as sacred landscapes, vital to our communal livelihoods, and integral to our oral histories. Our discussions with local Indigenous community members highlight the experiential knowledge of elders and land-users in relation to seasonal changes, water sources and use, and cosmological beliefs, all of which need to be protected.
The main concern
Indigenous communities oppose geothermal development because the plants are a threat to their traditional living spaces. The term ‘living space’ refers to the surrounding environment, access to land, forests, and water resources, the agricultural system that provides employment and income, the survival of Indigenous villages, and the collective authority that governs social relations, fair resource distribution, cultural sustainability, and community peace and cohesion.
The concept of ‘living space’ extends beyond a physical home—it’s a connection between people, land, ancestors, and nature. This living, spiritual, and social setting integrates daily life, rituals, and ancestral stories. Indigenous villages are often centred around sacred sites, communal houses, and farmland, reflecting a cosmological order that links humans to natural and spiritual realms. Thus, living space is a holistic domain that preserves cultural identity, fosters social harmony, and facilitates the transmission of traditional knowledge.
The key concern is the negative impact geothermal projects have on the surrounding natural environment and the impact this has on living spaces.
Water security is under threat
Local communities view geothermal power as a risk to their water supplies. Flores is an arid island with sparse vegetation, and fresh water is precious. Geothermal power plants require water to operate, and residents are worried that geothermal energy will affect the sustainability of their water resources. For example, a community leader from Waesano, Flores, expressed concern about the large amount of drinkable water used during drilling and other work related to a nearby geothermal power plant (Phone interview, 18 July 2025).
In Daratei Mataloko, a nearby river has been polluted by mud overflow from a geothermal power plant (now closed). Geothermal vapour continues to leak from the plant, damaging rice fields, causing skin health issues, and harming the roofs of residents’ houses. In Sokoria, Ende Regency, geothermal equipment has contaminated the water supply, forcing village residents to purchase water and have it delivered by truck. This problem is ongoing.
The Ulubelu power plant expansion project in Mataloko uses a large volume of water from the Tiwu Bala River. The river is important culturally and supplies water for hundreds of hectares of rice paddies in the southern part of Laja, located approximately five kilometres from the site.
In April 2025, the Governor of East Nusa Tenggara announced that he would review all geothermal exploration on Flores. However, there are no indications that the national government is backing away from the geothermal project or altering its approach to engaging local Indigenous communities in meaningful dialogue. Instead, the government keeps emphasising the perceived necessity of geothermal energy on the island. This indicates that the expectation for a significant review, including the cancellation of some (if not all) geothermal projects on Flores and Lembata, remains unfulfilled.
Food security is under threat
Indigenous communities are also concerned about long-term access to land and food security. The population of Flores is approximately two million people, the majority of whom are involved in agriculture. Most geothermal plants are situated on fertile, productive land, which means that less land is available for essential crops such as rice, maize, cassava, coffee, cloves, and cocoa. When land is used for geothermal projects, communities lose their livelihoods, which are a key part of their identity.
The government offers land compensation at market value, but our research suggests that crop income is a far more significant and stable form of income. A community leader in Poco Leok, interviewed on 24 May 2025, stated that through the cultivation of coffee, cloves, and cocoa, community members could afford to send their children to university and build houses. He noted that one-off land compensation payments were insufficient to achieve this, as land is collectively owned and the proceeds from land sales are shared among all clan members. As a result, the amount received is much less than the income from farming, especially in the long term.
Geothermal plants are often situated very close to housing
The small size of Flores and its mainly rural character mean that most geothermal plants are situated close to traditional housing. In Wae Sano, for instance, the geothermal drilling site is located approximately 80 metres from Nunang village, near Sano Goang Lake. A community leader in Wae Sano stated that the drilling point was just 40 metres from one of the community’s houses (phone interview, 18 July 2025). In Mataloko, the hamlet of Wogo is roughly one kilometre from the power plant.* Residents nearby have voiced concerns, stating that the constant loud noise disrupts their sleep and causes anxiety. In addition, vapour harms agricultural and medicinal plants and contaminates local water and food. All of these issues pose long-term health risks.
Geothermal power stations undermine social cohesion
Our research found that at most geothermal power plant exploration and development sites, conflicts emerged, both within and between clans, over whether they will be better off finacially to sell land for geothermal projects, at least in the short term, and the division of land compensation among clan membersAn activist in Mataloko stated that geothermal power plants are highly divisive (phone interview, August 10, 2025). The activist stated that those supporting and opposing the power plants are suspicious of one another, and family ties have been strained, thereby undermining social harmony.
Wider conflicts develop between supporters and opponents of geothermal plants. In Waesano, some communities outside the central exploitation zone support the power plant, while those within the core geothermal development area oppose it. In Poco Leok, of the 14 Lingko (customary land units), ten oppose the construction of the power plant project, while four support it.
There are similar division of opinion in Mataloko, Sokoria, and Atadei in Lembata. Those who received land compensation or have close ties to local government officials and state power companies tended to support the development. Opponents typically reside very close to power plant sites and express concerns about the long-term adverse effects of geothermal energy on economic security, the environment, and social and cultural connections.
Taking action
Indigenous communities opposing the development of geothermal energy have expressed their concerns in various ways. Some communities have formed alliances with local churches, non-government organisations, and environmental activists. Demonstrations involving thousands of people were held in four cities on Flores, Ruteng, Bajawa, Mbay, and Ende, to mark World Environment Day on 5 June 2025.
As a form of protest, the Indigenous community in Laja conducted a traditional ritual called ‘Tolak Bala’ (pushing back the Menace) on the Tiwu Bala River on 27 July 2025. A Eucharistic celebration at the Laja Parish Church preceded the ritual, during which the community summoned the spirits of their ancestors, including those of two European missionaries who built schools, clinics, roads, and irrigation systems for rice fields in Laja. The ritual symbolises their view that the power plant poses a threat to the community.
Recommendations for more positive geothermal energy management
1. Energy policymaking should be more attuned to the impact on local communities.
Indonesia’s national government designated Flores as a ‘geothermal island’ without proper regard for the impact on residents or local governments, despite the policy significantly affecting the living conditions of local communities.
The land rights of Indigenous peoples are recognised to some extent in law but are often limited by state control, as outlined in the 1945 Constitution. Article 18B(2) acknowledges the existence and traditional rights of Indigenous communities (masyarakat adat), but only insofar as they align with national laws and interests. Article 33 states that land, water, and natural resources are owned and managed by the state, and should be used to promote public prosperity. Flores is just one of many cases where development policies marginalise the voices of Indigenous communities. The development of food estates in Papua, mining in Kalimantan, palm oil plantations in Sumatra, and small islands have all excluded Indigenous communities from the formulation and implementation of policies that negatively impact their lives.
2. Geothermal power companies should consult properly with local communities and be required to implement harm minimisation strategies
At geothermal sites in Flores and Lembata, power companies research and explore without open consultation. Evidence gathered from community leaders in Wae Sano, Poco Leok, and Mataloko through our study reveals that the government and companies haven’t openly discussed the impacts of geothermal projects with the communities. For example, as noted by our local interviewees in May and August 2025, the geothermal company’s exploration team in Poco Leok identified drilling points without obtaining Indigenous approval. In Pajoreja, research teams from geothermal companies and the government didn’t disclose their development plans. In Mataloko, they pressured village heads and community groups into consenting to the sale of community land. In Sokoria, land acquisition involved intimidation. Authorities may threaten legal action, revoke community rights, or deploy security forces to instil fear and force compliance. This coercive approach undermines Indigenous authority and consent, turning negotiations into forced transactions rather than fair agreements.
3. Local traditions must be allowed to continue
Indigenous communities need the government and power companies to respect their local wisdom (kearifan local) and customary rituals. For example, during land clearing and construction for geothermal projects, local customary rituals need to be performed because the land is a key part of social, economic, and cultural practices. Some parts of geothermal power sites, such as in Poco Leok, are sacred sites and need to be protected.
In the village of Atakore on the island of Lembata, drilling occursnear the ‘dapur alam’ (natural kitchen) of Watuwawer where villagers use geothermal steam to cook food. Watuwawer is the place of Ina Kar in the local cosmology, a sacred female ancestral figure deeply respected by the local community. She is believed to be the guardian spirit of the land and its natural elements, particularly associated with fertility, protection, and maintaining balance between humans and the natural world. The so-called ‘natural kitchen’ is situated within her sacred domain, symbolising the nurturing relationship between people, the earth, and ancestral powers that sustain life through food and natural resources.
4. Local people need to benefit
Building power stations provides electricity to industrial and urban areas but local communities receive little benefit. The government’s promise of job creation hasn’t been fulfilled in relation to Indigenous communities because geothermal power plants require a workforce with technical skills that local communities often lack.
5. The number of power plants should be limited
The government plans to build 17 geothermal plants in Flores, but many Indigenous communities and activists advocate for fewer plants. The suggestion to cut back on the number of power stations is worth thinking about. However, in our research, we haven’t seen a plan that specifies where and why. There has been no policy change in reducing the number of power plants. They are even considering other sites for energy exploration. Many locals have demanded that the declaration of Flores as a ‘geothermal island’ be revoked because it has given the government and companies excessive rights to exploit the island without adequately considering the local Indigenous rights to their land and livelihood. This should be discussed openly with local Indigenous communities, the government, and power companies to find the best way forward.
6. Develop renewable energies beyond geothermal
Many communities are eager to develop small to medium-scale solar and micro-hydro plants, especially if they can achieve energy independence from the state, generate jobs, and provide direct income for residents. Given that the local government, in particular, has been accommodating of local Indigenous concerns so far, we are optimistic that they will do their best within their capacity to persuade the national government and power companies to explore other potential energy sources.
Conclusion
To ensure that local Indigenous communities in Flores and across Indonesia benefit from geothermal projects, the Indonesian government and geothermal development companies should implement policies grounded in social justice, cultural respect, and environmental care. This includes acknowledging customary land rights and involving communities in decision-making processes. Projects should distribute economic benefits, safeguard sacred and ecological sites, and invest in education, cultural preservation, and environmental monitoring to foster long-term community empowerment and peaceful coexistence with geothermal development. Ultimately, sustainable energy should deliver benefits for all, particularly the Indigenous communities living closest to the land.
Authors: Dr Justin Wejak & Dr Nikolaus Loy.
Main image: A Geothermal power plant in the Sokoria area, Ende, East Nusa Tenggara. Credit: Selisik/Wikicommons.
